Tennyson’s ‘Ulysses’ offers some highly inspiring lines, which, when contextualized within the Victorian period, reflect deeper societal shifts. When analyzing literature, it is essential to consider the time and cultural background in which the text was written. The poetry of the Victorian period often mirrors characteristics of the Romantic era but with distinct differences rooted in societal change. Romantic poets such as Wordsworth, Coleridge, Shelley, and Keats highlighted a profound connection between humanity and nature, emphasizing nature’s spiritual and restorative role. However, in Victorian poetry, this connection weakens.
This shift can be attributed largely to the Industrial Revolution. During the Romantic period, there was a strong philosophical push, notably from thinkers like Rousseau, advocating for a “return to nature” as a response to increasing urbanization. By the mid to late 18th century, cities like London were expanding rapidly due to rural populations migrating in search of employment. As London developed into an industrial hub, new industries emerged, creating a disconnect between individuals and the natural world. Romantic authors sought refuge from these urban and industrial pressures by finding solace and tranquillity in nature.
However, by the Victorian era, this escapism had become less viable. Industrialization and modernization reached even remote regions, diminishing the untouched sanctuaries that nature once offered. For instance, early 18th-century society was marked by growing industrial production, but by the 19th century, technological advancements had fundamentally altered daily life. The pervasive influence of technology led to major societal transformations, forcing those who adhered to traditional lifestyles to adapt.
This technological shift created a challenge—individuals had to adjust to the pace of change, often redirecting their focus from nature to scientific progress, technological development, and material advancement. As a result, the once harmonious relationship between humanity and nature became strained. Victorian poetry reflects this tension: nature remains present as a backdrop, but it is increasingly viewed as vulnerable and distant. The Romantic ideal of nature as sublime and spiritually nourishing began to fade, replaced by a more practical and detached perception. The romanticization of nature, where it was once idealized and worshiped, diminished as people now saw it as a constant object rather than a source of transcendence.
In Romantic poetry, the human being was central, but nature was also given equal importance, reflecting the belief that nature was integral to human experience. However, in 19th-century Victorian society and literature, a shift occurred. While nature remained a presence, it no longer shared the same level of importance. The focus shifted toward the human being and, specifically, the human connection with other humans, society, and progress. This shift is reflected in Tennyson’s ‘Ulysses’, where Ulysses identifies not with nature or the sea, but with human ambition, exploration, and self-definition.
The sea in the poem, though alluring and symbolic of discovery, also represents challenges and hardships. Ulysses, however, does not see himself as being defined by nature. Instead, he makes comparisons between himself and other people, notably contrasting an active, adventurous king with an idle king. He portrays himself as dynamic and restless, rejecting idleness, stagnation, and conformity. Ulysses also distances himself from his “aged wife” and his subjects, whom he describes as a “savage race”—an expression that ties into the colonial mentality of the Victorian period.
During this time, Britain was heavily engaged in colonization, and the British viewed many colonized populations as “savage” or “uncivilized.” Writers like Rudyard Kipling propagated ideas such as the “White Man’s Burden,” a belief that it was the duty of Europeans to civilize the people of the colonies. Tennyson’s adaptation of the classical figure of Odysseus (from Homer’s Odyssey) into the Victorian Ulysses reflects this shift. Unlike Homer’s hero, who was primarily concerned with war and homecoming, Tennyson’s Ulysses represents the Victorian spirit of expansion, conquest, and the drive for progress. This is a reflection of England’s colonial dominance during the 19th century.
Ulysses’ refusal to remain idle reflects the Victorian ideal of humanism, where man is placed at the centre of all progress. Humanism, which began during the Renaissance, emphasized the potential and achievements of human beings. In this poem, Ulysses embodies that ideal—he is determined to keep striving and exploring despite his age, demonstrating the indefatigable spirit that characterizes human ambition. Ulysses, as a symbol of the Victorian ideal, rejects passivity and embraces continuous effort, discovery, and work.
The Victorian era saw England as the most industrialized and advanced society, with a global empire. This belief in progress is central to Ulysses’ worldview. He criticizes those who live a life of ease and idleness, describing them as people who merely “hoard, and sleep, and feed,” disconnected from the industrious spirit he represents. His desire for continuous travel, exploration, and action exemplifies the shift from the Romantic ideal of finding peace in nature to the Victorian ideal of constant work and advancement.
Ulysses explicitly states, “I cannot rest from travel,” signifying his resistance to retirement and stagnation. In contrast to the traditional belief that life should culminate in rest, reflection, or spiritual growth (as seen in various traditions, including the Indian Ashram system), Ulysses embraces a life of perpetual motion. His outlook reflects a break from traditional values, embracing the modern ideal of constant competition and productivity. This is consistent with the work culture of the Victorian colonial empire, where the concept of the “sun never setting” symbolized continuous work and expansion across the globe. Unlike the Romantic period, which celebrated nature, tranquility, and introspection, the Victorian era prioritized progress, industrial development, and human achievement. Ulysses, as a representative of this new era, refuses to slow down or accept limitations, embodying the restless drive of modernity.
Victorian society was marked by constant competition and daily challenges, which required individuals to be prepared to face new obstacles continuously. This sense of relentless striving is captured in ‘Ulysses’ through the line, “I will drink life to the lees.” The metaphor of drinking the last remaining drops of wine from the bottom of a bottle signifies the desire to live life to its fullest, leaving nothing behind. It reflects Ulysses’ determination to use even his last breath for adventure and meaningful action. This embodies the Victorian spirit, where the desire to achieve, progress, and compete was paramount.
Victorian humanism elevated the idea of man as the center of all endeavors, but it also introduced fierce competition between individuals. This era, unlike earlier humanistic movements, saw life as an ongoing struggle akin to a battlefield, with no time for rest or complacency. This idea is echoed in Matthew Arnold’s poem ‘Dover Beach’, which describes life as a constant conflict, where individuals are “confused by alarms” and perpetually fighting. Ulysses’ metaphor of drinking life to the lees and his refusal to rest from travel align with this broader Victorian mindset.
Ulysses’ yearning to “follow knowledge like a sinking star” further underscores his unrelenting drive. The “gray spirit” mentioned in the poem refers to the aging body or the spirit of someone approaching old age. For Victorians, life was often viewed in shades of gray, neither fully optimistic nor completely despairing. This “gray” perspective signifies a blend of struggle and progress, with life seen as a continuous pursuit of knowledge, work, and achievement. As Ulysses reflects on his aging state, he acknowledges that even though he is growing older, his desire for discovery and knowledge remains strong. He wants to pursue knowledge relentlessly, beyond the limits of human understanding, symbolized by the sinking star—an image of something unattainable but worth chasing.
The Victorian emphasis on continuous work, scientific advancement, and industrial progress is evident here. The idea that life has a middle path, one that avoids extremes but leans toward consistent effort, was central to this period. The gray spirit, therefore, embodies a balance: despite age, there is a persistent desire to achieve, to explore, and to gain knowledge, wealth, and power. Ulysses’ goal to push “beyond the utmost bound of human thought” encapsulates this drive for exploration, innovation, and progress.
As Ulysses prepares to embark on a new journey, he acknowledges that this path will not be simple or guaranteed to result in success. He emphasizes the importance of embarking on the quest regardless of the outcome, urging others to be in “high spirits” as they face the unknown. He passes on his responsibilities to his son, acknowledging that his son may not embody the same virtues or adventurous spirit.
The imagery of the port, the ship, and the sea in the final lines is crucial to understanding the poem’s conclusion. The port represents the starting point, while the ship, with its sails raised, symbolizes readiness and excitement for the journey ahead. The sea, however, is described as dark and gloomy, reflecting both hope and uncertainty. The sea, as a metaphor, conveys the dual nature of exploration—promising new discoveries but also fraught with risks and confusion. The waves cause the ship to shake and move unpredictably, creating a sense of anticipation and danger. The journey into the dark, broad sea represents venturing into the unknown, driven by curiosity, ambition, and the human spirit’s refusal to remain static.
This portrayal of the sea highlights the balance between optimism and uncertainty in the Victorian worldview. While the ship is ready and the journey is exciting, the dark, turbulent sea serves as a reminder of the challenges that lie ahead. For Ulysses, however, this uncertainty is not a deterrent; instead, it fuels his determination to keep moving forward, embodying the spirit of perseverance and human progress that defined the Victorian era.
The sea in ‘Ulysses’ is symbolic of both mystery and uncertainty, reflecting its vast, limitless nature. During the Renaissance, explorers proved that the sea surrounds the entire Earth, and by traveling west, one could eventually return from the east, demonstrating its global reach. However, the sea remains unpredictable and perilous, embodying hope, danger, and the unknown. Ulysses recognizes that embarking on this voyage could lead to either survival or death, yet the vastness of the sea calls him forward.
He addresses his mariners, those who have toiled, fought, and endured hardships alongside him, rallying them for one final journey. By invoking their shared past, Ulysses uses powerful rhetoric to stir their emotions. He highlights their bravery and past achievements to inspire them to face new challenges with the same courage. This is a deliberate tactic: by reminding them of their glorious past, he motivates them to create an equally glorious future. Ulysses tells them that, together, they have faced thunder and sunshine—symbolizing hardships and joys—with open hearts, and that this spirit should continue.
Ulysses acknowledges that both he and his mariners have aged, but he emphasizes that their honor and experience remain. Though their bodies have grown weaker, their minds and spirits are still strong. He reminds them that old age should not be a time of idleness but a time for accomplishing noble deeds. The idea of achieving “some work of noble note” before death highlights the Victorian belief in the importance of leaving a legacy. Ulysses insists that even as death approaches, they should strive to achieve something significant and meaningful—something worthy of the men who once fought alongside gods.
In referring to the Trojan War, Ulysses highlights the extraordinary nature of their past. The war was not just a human conflict but one in which gods were also involved. Apollo supported Troy, while other gods sided with Greece. Ulysses uses this mythological reference to elevate the status of his mariners, reminding them that they are not ordinary men but heroes who have battled forces beyond mortal comprehension. Therefore, embarking on another journey into the unknown is a challenge worthy of their legacy.
As night falls, the light begins to twinkle from the rocks, signaling that it is time to set sail. Ulysses acknowledges their physical limitations, saying, “Though much is taken, much abides.” He admits that old age has taken away their physical strength, and their memory or stamina may be fading, but much still remains. Importantly, old age is not death. The wisdom, courage, and experience they have accumulated still endure.
He reflects on the strength they once had, capable of “moving Earth and Heaven” during their youth. In ancient battles, their power was so formidable that even gods feared them. In Greek mythology, while gods could kill men, there were instances where men could challenge and even defeat gods. Ulysses uses this mythological parallel to remind his mariners that their greatness transcended mortality and even divine beings.
Although Ulysses acknowledges that they no longer possess their former physical might, he emphasizes the strength of their will. This inner strength—the indefatigable spirit that refuses to yield—remains their greatest asset. He urges them to keep striving, to pursue greatness, and to leave behind a legacy of courage, exploration, and noble deeds. For Ulysses, life’s meaning lies in continual striving, even in the face of inevitable mortality.
In ‘Ulysses’, Tennyson emphasizes the enduring strength of the human spirit, even as the body weakens with age. The mariners, alongside Ulysses, are described as possessing “one equal temper of heroic hearts,” suggesting that although their physical strength has diminished due to time and fate—a natural outcome of aging—their willpower and mental fortitude remain strong. They are determined to “strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield,” embodying the Victorian ethos of perseverance and ambition. This refusal to surrender, even in the face of mortality, marks a significant departure from Romantic ideals.
The Romantic period viewed nature as a source of sublime beauty, imagination, and spiritual fulfillment. For Romantic writers, nature was a place of wonder, tranquility, and personal reflection, where individuals could connect with their inner selves. Romantic poets often embarked on “grand tours,” exploring natural landscapes like mountains, rivers, and forests with reverence and admiration. Nature was seen as a nurturing and benevolent force, not as an adversary. There was no sense of nature being indifferent or hostile; instead, it was a companion to human existence, providing spiritual nourishment and creative inspiration.
However, the Victorian perspective, as seen in Tennyson’s ‘Ulysses’, marks a clear shift. Nature is no longer romanticized or seen as spiritually uplifting. Instead, it is viewed as a constant, indifferent force that humans must struggle against to maintain their existence. The sea, in this context, is no longer a place of serene exploration but a metaphor for the uncertainty, danger, and challenges that life presents. The adventure Ulysses proposes is not a grand, leisurely exploration but a dangerous journey where success and death are equally possible. Nature, once an ally in the Romantic period, is now portrayed as an obstacle that must be overcome in the quest for knowledge, material success, and human achievement.
This shift in perspective reflects the impact of the Industrial Revolution, scientific advancement, and the changing worldview of the Victorian era. The scientific approach to nature, emphasizing natural laws and physical phenomena, replaced the spiritual and imaginative interpretations of the Romantics. Victorians saw nature as something to be studied, controlled, and sometimes conquered. The Romantic idea of nature as a sublime and idealized force was replaced by a more practical and often adversarial view, where humans were constantly in a struggle for survival and dominance.
In this struggle, the concept of “survival of the fittest” emerges—a notion tied to the broader Victorian idea of progress. The waves of the sea, for example, are not sources of inspiration but forces that must be fought and conquered, much like the challenges posed by industrialization and colonial expansion. Ulysses and his mariners face these challenges not as a spiritual journey but as a battle for meaning and legacy. Just as Odysseus and ancient warriors faced battles where victory and defeat were uncertain, Ulysses and his companions embark on their journey with the same uncertainty.
Thus, Tennyson’s portrayal of nature as a hindrance rather than a source of inspiration illustrates the fundamental departure from Romantic ideals. The Victorian perspective does not view nature as inherently positive or negative, but as a neutral, indifferent entity that humans must contend with. This shift is reflective of a broader cultural change, where scientific reasoning and industrial progress dominated human thought, pushing aside the spiritual and imaginative connections to nature that defined the Romantic period.
In conclusion, Tennyson’s ‘Ulysses’ highlights the Victorian struggle against nature, mortality, and the limits of human achievement. The poem encapsulates the era’s competitive, restless spirit, where individuals seek to achieve greatness despite the inevitability of aging and death. Unlike the Romantics, who found solace in nature, the Victorians saw nature as a challenge—one that required resilience, intellect, and willpower to overcome. As the lecture closes, the shift from Romanticism to Victorian realism is clear: nature is no longer a sublime refuge, but a formidable opponent in the quest for human progress and legacy.
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