Alfred Lord Tennyson, a towering figure in Victorian poetry, crafted works that resonated with the era’s spirit of romanticism, exploration, and introspection. His poem “Ulysses,” a dramatic monologue delivered by the legendary Greek hero, encapsulates these themes while grappling with universal questions of aging, purpose, and the insatiable thirst for knowledge and experience. This essay delves into a critical appreciation of Tennyson’s “Ulysses,” exploring its historical context, allusions, thematic depth, and literary techniques, ultimately assessing its place within the Victorian literary landscape and its enduring relevance today.
Alfred Tennyson and the Victorian Age
Born in 1809, Alfred Tennyson’s life coincided with a period of profound social and intellectual transformation in England. The Victorian era, named after Queen Victoria, was marked by rapid industrialization, groundbreaking scientific advancements, and the expansion of the British Empire across the globe 1. This period witnessed the rise of a burgeoning middle class, increased literacy rates, and a revival of interest in classical literature and mythology 3. This renewed engagement with the classics, fueled by a desire to connect with the roots of Western civilization, profoundly influenced Tennyson’s work, providing him with a rich source of inspiration and a framework for exploring contemporary concerns.
Tennyson, appointed Poet Laureate in 1850, became a defining voice of this era, capturing its complexities and anxieties in his poetry 4. His works often explored themes of faith and doubt, loss and grief, and the intricacies of the human condition, reflecting the Victorian struggle to reconcile traditional values with a rapidly changing world. The Victorian era was also characterized by a strong emphasis on “respectability” 3, a code of conduct that valued morality, social duty, and self-improvement. This concept of respectability plays a subtle yet significant role in “Ulysses,” as we witness the hero grappling with his desire for personal fulfillment against the backdrop of societal expectations.
Tennyson’s personal life, marked by the tragic death of his close friend Arthur Hallam, profoundly influenced his writing, imbuing it with a sense of melancholy and a yearning for something beyond the confines of earthly existence 6. This loss, coupled with financial struggles that plagued him for years 7, shaped his perspective on life and informed his exploration of themes such as mortality, purpose, and the pursuit of meaning in a world often marked by uncertainty and suffering. The Victorian era itself was not immune to such anxieties. The rapid pace of change and scientific discoveries led to a “crisis of faith” 3, as traditional religious beliefs were challenged by new ways of understanding the world. This intellectual and spiritual ferment provides a crucial context for understanding Tennyson’s work, which often grapples with questions of faith, doubt, and the search for meaning in an age of transition.
Furthermore, the Victorian landscape, both physical and intellectual, played a significant role in shaping Tennyson’s imagination. Growing up in the Lincolnshire countryside, surrounded by “the plain, the sea about his home” 7, instilled in him a deep appreciation for the natural world, which often finds expression in his poetry. The vastness of the sea, the rolling plains, and the ever-changing sky provided a constant source of inspiration, fueling his sense of wonder and his exploration of themes such as freedom, longing, and the human connection to nature.
Background of the Poem “Ulysses”
Composed in 1833 and revised in 1842, “Ulysses” draws inspiration from both Homer’s Odyssey and Dante’s Inferno 8. In Homer’s epic, Ulysses (Odysseus in Greek) embarks on a perilous ten-year journey home after the Trojan War, facing numerous challenges and temptations along the way. Dante, in his Inferno, portrays Ulysses as a figure driven by an insatiable thirst for knowledge, who ultimately perishes while leading his crew on a voyage beyond the known world. Dante’s Ulysses, consumed by his desire to “gain experience of the world and of human vice and worth,” sails beyond the Pillars of Hercules, defying the limits set by God and ultimately meeting his demise in a shipwreck 9.
Tennyson’s “Ulysses” blends these two narratives, presenting the hero not at the end of his journey, as in Dante’s account, but at a crossroads. Having returned to Ithaca after years of wandering, Ulysses finds himself restless in his domestic life, yearning for one last adventure. The poem captures the hero’s internal conflict between his duty as king and his desire for exploration, between the comforts of home and the allure of the unknown. It is important to note that “Ulysses” can also be read as a reflection of Tennyson’s own personal journey. Written shortly after the death of his dear friend Arthur Hallam, the poem expresses the poet’s own “need of going forward and braving the struggle of life” 9. In this sense, Ulysses becomes a symbol of the grieving poet, seeking to overcome his loss and find new meaning in a world forever altered by death.
Explanation of Allusions in the Poem
Tennyson’s “Ulysses” is interwoven with allusions, drawing upon Greek mythology, classical literature, and historical events to enhance its meaning and resonance. These allusions, rather than simply serving as decorative elements, function as integral components of the poem’s structure and thematic development. They connect Ulysses’ personal journey with broader themes of human experience, mythology, and history, adding layers of complexity and depth to his character and motivations.
To better illustrate the significance of these allusions, let’s present them in a tabular format:
| Allusion | Source | Significance in the Poem |
| Ulysses (Odysseus) | Homer’s Odyssey | The protagonist, renowned for his cunning, intelligence, and adventurous spirit. His legendary journey home after the Trojan War provides a backdrop for his current restlessness11. |
| Telemachus | Homer’s Odyssey | Ulysses’ son, representing responsibility and pragmatism, a contrast to his father’s adventurous nature9. |
| Happy Isles | Greek Mythology | A mythical land of the blessed, symbolizing both a physical destination and a metaphorical yearning for fulfillment12. |
| Achilles | Greek Mythology | A Greek hero of the Trojan War, renowned for his strength. The allusion highlights the passage of time and the diminished physical strength of Ulysses and his crew, while emphasizing their enduring “heroic hearts.” 13 |
| Troy | The Trojan War | A significant period in Ulysses’ life, representing battles, glory, and camaraderie. Evokes nostalgia and a longing for past adventures12. |
| Hyades | Greek Mythology | A star cluster associated with rain and storms, adding a layer of foreboding and hinting at the potential dangers of Ulysses’ journey12. |
Analysis of Themes, Imagery, and Language
“Ulysses” explores several interconnected themes that resonate with both the Victorian era and the human condition in general:
- The Pursuit of Knowledge and Experience: Ulysses embodies the restless spirit of the explorer, driven by an insatiable desire to “follow knowledge like a sinking star, / Beyond the utmost bound of human thought” (lines 31-32). This theme reflects the Victorian fascination with scientific discovery, geographical exploration, and the expansion of knowledge. Ulysses’ yearning for new experiences aligns with the era’s spirit of intellectual curiosity and the pursuit of progress.
- Dissatisfaction with Old Age and the Desire for New Experiences: Ulysses rejects the sedentary life of an aging king, finding it “dull…to pause, to make an end, / To rust unburnished, not to shine in use!” (lines 22-23). He yearns to escape the confines of his domestic life and embrace new challenges, defying the limitations imposed by age and societal expectations. This theme resonates with the human desire to transcend the mundane and find meaning and purpose beyond the confines of routine and responsibility.
- The Importance of Striving and Not Yielding to Fate: The poem’s final line, “To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield,” encapsulates its central message of perseverance and resilience in the face of adversity and the inevitability of death. This theme resonated with the Victorian emphasis on self-improvement, the pursuit of progress, and the belief in human agency. Ulysses’ determination to continue striving, even in the face of declining physical strength and the unknown dangers that lie ahead, embodies this spirit of resilience and the refusal to succumb to complacency or despair.
- The Relationship Between Father and Son: The poem contrasts Ulysses’ adventurous spirit with his son Telemachus’ more grounded nature. Ulysses acknowledges Telemachus’ suitability for ruling Ithaca, highlighting the different paths they take in life. While Ulysses seeks fulfillment in exploration and the pursuit of knowledge, Telemachus finds purpose in duty, responsibility, and the preservation of order. This contrast underscores the complexity of human motivations and the diverse ways in which individuals find meaning and purpose.
However, it is crucial to acknowledge the potential irony in Ulysses’ fervent desire for adventure while seemingly neglecting his responsibilities as king 9. His dismissal of his “savage race” (line 4) and his eagerness to leave his kingdom in the hands of his son raise questions about his priorities and his commitment to his people. This tension between individual desire and social duty adds a layer of complexity to the poem and invites a critical examination of Ulysses’ character and motivations.
Tennyson employs vivid imagery and evocative language to convey these themes:
- Imagery of the Sea: The sea, a recurring motif in the poem, symbolizes both freedom and the unknown. Ulysses describes the “dark broad seas” (line 45) and his desire to sail “beyond the sunset” (line 60), evoking a sense of limitless possibility and adventure. The sea becomes a metaphor for the boundless realm of experience that Ulysses seeks to explore, a realm that lies beyond the confines of his familiar world.
- Imagery of Motion and Stasis: The poem contrasts the dynamic imagery of Ulysses’ desired journey with the static imagery of his current life “by this still hearth, among these barren crags” (line 2). This contrast emphasizes his yearning for action and escape from stagnation. The imagery of motion represents vitality, growth, and the pursuit of new horizons, while the imagery of stasis suggests inertia, decline, and a life unfulfilled.
- Language of Longing and Determination: Tennyson uses words like “hungry heart” (line 12), “yearning in desire” (line 30), and “strong in will” (line 68) to convey Ulysses’ intense longing for new experiences and his unwavering determination to pursue them. This language emphasizes the emotional and psychological forces that drive Ulysses, highlighting his passionate nature and his refusal to be confined by the limitations of his current circumstances.
The interplay of these themes, imagery, and language creates a rich tapestry of meaning in “Ulysses,” inviting readers to explore the complexities of human experience and the enduring quest for purpose and fulfillment.
Critical Evaluation of the Poem’s Strengths and Weaknesses
Having explored the historical context, allusions, and thematic depth of “Ulysses,” we can now turn to a critical evaluation of its strengths and weaknesses. The poem has been widely praised for its powerful imagery, evocative language, and its exploration of universal themes. Its strengths lie in:
- Its exploration of universal themes: The poem’s themes of aging, purpose, and the pursuit of knowledge resonate with readers across time and cultures. Ulysses’ struggle to find meaning and fulfillment in the face of mortality speaks to the human condition and the enduring quest for something beyond the limitations of our earthly existence.
- Its masterful use of language: Tennyson’s command of language creates a vivid and memorable experience for the reader. His use of metaphor, imagery, and sound devices such as alliteration and assonance enhances the poem’s emotional impact and its aesthetic beauty.
- Its dramatic monologue form: The use of dramatic monologue allows for a deep exploration of Ulysses’ inner thoughts and motivations. We are given access to his innermost feelings, his doubts, and his aspirations, creating a sense of intimacy and psychological depth.
However, some critics have pointed to potential weaknesses:
- Ulysses’ questionable morality: Some readers may find Ulysses’ abandonment of his responsibilities as king and his seemingly dismissive attitude towards his family to be problematic. His eagerness to leave his kingdom and his people in pursuit of personal fulfillment raises questions about his ethical obligations and his commitment to the well-being of others. This potential conflict between individual desire and social duty is further heightened by the Victorian emphasis on respectability and social responsibility 3.
- Potential for misinterpretation: The poem’s final line, often taken as a call to action and a celebration of human striving, can be interpreted as promoting a reckless pursuit of personal desire at the expense of others. This interpretation raises concerns about the potential for egotism and a disregard for the consequences of one’s actions.
Furthermore, “Ulysses” has been subject to various interpretations, some of which challenge the traditional reading of the poem as a straightforward celebration of heroic striving. Some critics, for instance, have suggested that the poem can be read as a deathbed poem, with Ulysses’ final voyage representing a metaphorical journey towards death 8. Others have interpreted the poem as a form of intellectual satire, highlighting the potential for self-deception and the futility of pursuing an unattainable ideal 8. These diverse interpretations demonstrate the poem’s complexity and its ability to generate ongoing critical discussion.
Conclusion
Despite these potential criticisms and varying interpretations, “Ulysses” remains a powerful and enduring work of Victorian poetry. Its exploration of universal themes, its masterful use of language, and its dramatic intensity continue to captivate readers. The poem’s ambiguity and open-endedness invite multiple readings, ensuring its continued relevance and stimulating critical discussion. Tennyson’s “Ulysses” stands as a testament to the enduring human desire for exploration, knowledge, and a life lived to the fullest, even in the face of aging and mortality. Moreover, “Ulysses” speaks to the broader Victorian ideals of progress, self-improvement, and the pursuit of knowledge. It captures the spirit of an age marked by both intellectual ferment and a deep-seated anxiety about the changing world. The poem’s enduring appeal lies in its ability to connect with these fundamental human aspirations while acknowledging the complexities and challenges that accompany the pursuit of a meaningful life. As Tennyson himself suggests, “Ulysses” is a “war-cry against pessimism and defeatism” 14, a call to embrace the unknown and strive for something beyond the limitations of our present circumstances. In this sense, the poem continues to resonate with contemporary readers, offering a timeless message of hope, resilience, and the enduring human spirit.
Works cited
1. http://www.english-heritage.org.uk, accessed on January 27, 2025, https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/victorian/#:~:text=The%20Victorian%20era%20spans%20the,until%20her%20death%20in%201901.
2. Victorians | English Heritage, accessed on January 27, 2025, https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/victorian/
3. Victorian era – Wikipedia, accessed on January 27, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_era
4. en.wikipedia.org, accessed on January 27, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred,_Lord_Tennyson
5. Victorian Britain: a brief history – Historical Association, accessed on January 27, 2025, https://www.history.org.uk/primary/resource/3871/victorian-britain-a-brief-history
6. About Alfred, Lord Tennyson | Academy of American Poets, accessed on January 27, 2025, https://poets.org/poet/alfred-lord-tennyson
7. Alfred, Lord Tennyson | Victorian Poet & Poetry | Britannica, accessed on January 27, 2025, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alfred-Lord-Tennyson
8. Tennyson’s “Ulysses” – A Critical Appreciation / Reflection of Victorian Spirit We still look to the earlier masters for, accessed on January 27, 2025, https://www.mmdcollege.in/webdocs/English_4thSemester/Ulysses%20-%20A%20Critical%20Appreciation.pdf
9. Tennyson’s Poetry “Ulysses” Summary & Analysis | SparkNotes, accessed on January 27, 2025, https://www.sparknotes.com/poetry/tennyson/section4/
10. Analysis of Poem “Ulysses” by Alfred, Lord Tennyson – Owlcation, accessed on January 27, 2025, https://owlcation.com/humanities/Analysis-of-Poem-Ulysses-by-Alfred-Lord-Tennyson
11. Ulysses – Wikipedia, accessed on January 27, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulysses
12. Allusion in Ulysses – Owl Eyes, accessed on January 27, 2025, https://www.owleyes.org/text/ulysses-tennyson/analysis/allusion
13. http://www.owleyes.org, accessed on January 27, 2025, https://www.owleyes.org/text/ulysses-tennyson/analysis/allusion#:~:text=Allusion%20Examples%20in%20Ulysses%3A&text=Achilles%2C%20who%20grows%20into%20a,the%20heel%20with%20an%20arrow.&text=In%20Greek%20mythology%2C%20Telemachus%20is,major%20character%20in%20Homer’s%20Odyssey.
14. Critically Appreciate Tennyson | PDF – Scribd, accessed on January 27, 2025, https://www.scribd.com/doc/251736673/Critically-Appreciate-Tennyson
Literary Latitude 