The classical dramatic unities, often attributed to Aristotle, though significantly refined and rigidified by later Renaissance critics, represent a cornerstone in the theory of tragedy. These “unities” — specifically of Time, Place, and Action— were conceived as principles to ensure the coherence, plausibility, and emotional impact of a dramatic performance. For professors of English Literature and Language, particularly those engaging with classical and early modern drama, a nuanced understanding of these concepts, their historical trajectory, and their practical application is essential.
The Aristotelian Unities: A Foundational Understanding
Aristotle, in his seminal work Poetics, primarily emphasized the unity of action, with the unities of time and place being largely inferred or less explicitly detailed. It was the Italian Renaissance critics, particularly Lodovico Castelvetro in the 16th century, who codified these principles into the stringent rules that heavily influenced Neoclassical drama.
1. Unity of Action
This is arguably the most crucial of the three unities for Aristotle. It dictates that a play should have one single, coherent plot or main action, free from extraneous subplots or digressions. Every event, character, and dialogue should contribute directly to the progression and resolution of this central action. The plot should have a clear beginning, middle, and end, with each part logically following from the previous, leading inevitably to the climax and dénouement. Aristotle believed that a unified action allows for greater dramatic intensity and impact, as the audience’s focus is not dispersed across multiple narratives.
Example from Greek Plays: Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex (also known as Oedipus Tyrannus) serves as an exemplary illustration of the unity of action. The entire play revolves around Oedipus’s relentless pursuit of the murderer of Laius, the former king of Thebes, in order to lift the plague afflicting his city. Every discovery, every revelation, every character interaction (Tiresias, Creon, Jocasta, the Corinthian Messenger, the Shepherd) serves to advance this singular investigation, culminating in the horrific truth of Oedipus’s own parricide and incest. There are no subplots involving other characters or tangential narratives; the focus remains entirely on Oedipus’s tragic discovery of his identity and fate. The play moves inexorably from the initial crisis of the plague to Oedipus’s self-blinding, driven by a single, unfolding chain of events directly linked to the central quest.
2. Unity of Time
Aristotle’s suggestion regarding time was that the action of a tragedy should, ideally, occur within a single revolution of the sun, meaning roughly 24 hours. Some interpretations allowed for a slightly longer period, but the fundamental idea was to keep the dramatic time as close as possible to the actual time of performance, or at least within a reasonable, contiguous span. This constraint aimed to enhance verisimilitude and make the events of the play more believable to the audience. A prolonged passage of time, it was thought, might strain the audience’s credulity and interrupt the sense of continuous dramatic urgency.
Example from Greek Plays: Again, Oedipus Rex largely adheres to the unity of time. The events of the play, from the initial plea of the Theban citizens to Oedipus’s self-blinding, unfold over the course of a single day. The arrival of the Corinthian messenger, the confrontation with Tiresias, the questioning of the shepherd – all these critical turning points happen in rapid succession, creating a palpable sense of urgency and compression. This temporal compression intensifies the tragic revelations, making them feel immediate and inescapable for both the characters and the audience.
3. Unity of Place
The unity of place, though not explicitly stated by Aristotle as a strict rule, was often inferred from his emphasis on unity of action and the practical limitations of the Greek stage. It suggests that the entire action of the play should take place in a single, fixed location. Moving between different cities or even vastly separated areas within the same city was generally discouraged, as it might break the illusion of reality and complicate staging. The chorus, a fixed element of Greek tragedy, also contributed to the static nature of the setting.
Example from Greek Plays: In Oedipus Rex, the entire action unfolds before the royal palace in Thebes. Characters enter and exit this singular space, but the scene itself never shifts. The momentous discoveries, the confrontations, and the final tragic spectacle all occur within this one defined area. Similarly, in Aeschylus’s Agamemnon, the action is confined to the palace at Argos, while in Sophocles’ Antigone, it remains outside the palace gates in Thebes. This adherence to a single location reinforces the dramatic focus and concentrates the audience’s attention on the unfolding events within that confined space.
Shakespeare’s Departure from the Unities
William Shakespeare, writing in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, largely disregarded the strict classical unities, particularly as they were understood by the rigid Neoclassical critics of his own time and later. His dramatic genius lay in his willingness to explore a more expansive and less constrained theatrical world, reflecting the greater complexity of human experience and the boundless reach of the human imagination. His plays showcase a remarkable freedom in terms of time, place, and action, leading to a richer and more multifaceted dramatic experience.
1. Unity of Action in Shakespeare
While Shakespeare’s plays generally maintain a central plot, they frequently incorporate multiple subplots and parallel narratives, often involving a diverse cast of characters from various social strata. These subplots are not mere digressions but often serve to illuminate, contrast, or comment upon the main action, adding layers of thematic complexity and dramatic irony.
Example from Shakespeare: In King Lear, the main plot revolves around Lear’s tragic decision to divide his kingdom and his subsequent descent into madness due to the treachery of his elder daughters. However, running parallel to this is the equally significant subplot involving Gloucester and his sons, Edgar and Edmund. Edmund’s manipulation of his father and brother mirrors the deceit of Goneril and Regan. This parallel plot provides a powerful thematic echo of filial ingratitude and human folly, deepening the play’s exploration of justice, suffering, and societal breakdown. The interweaving of these two narratives, rather than detracting from the unity, amplifies the play’s emotional and philosophical resonance. Another example is Hamlet, which, while focused on Hamlet’s quest for revenge, features numerous interconnected subplots concerning Ophelia, Laertes, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, and the political machinations surrounding Claudius.
2. Unity of Time in Shakespeare
Shakespeare’s plays frequently span considerable periods of time, sometimes weeks, months, or even years, within a single play. He employs a technique known as “double time” or “long and short time,” where specific scenes might feel immediate and compressed, while the overall narrative encompasses a much longer duration, often subtly indicated through dialogue or narrative progression. This temporal fluidity allows for the development of complex character arcs and the depiction of the long-term consequences of actions.
Example from Shakespeare: Othello provides an excellent example. The events of the play, from the arrival in Cyprus to the tragic climax, feel intensely compressed, unfolding over what seems like a very short period (the “short time”). However, the audience is also given subtle hints through dialogue (e.g., references to Othello and Desdemona’s courtship and marriage, their established life in Venice) that a longer period must have elapsed (the “long time”) for Iago’s intricate schemes to unfold and for characters to have developed certain relationships or reputations. This manipulation of time contributes to the dizzying speed of Othello’s downfall, making it appear both sudden and yet rooted in deeper, more insidious processes. Similarly, Antony and Cleopatra spans over ten years, encompassing various battles, political shifts, and emotional transformations.
3. Unity of Place in Shakespeare
Shakespeare’s plays are characterized by frequent and rapid shifts in location. A single act, or even a single scene, might transport the audience from a battlefield to a royal court, from a bustling city street to a remote forest, or across vast geographical distances. This constant change of setting, facilitated by the more flexible Elizabethan stage (which often relied on spoken descriptions and minimal props rather than elaborate sets), allows for a broader scope of action and a more dynamic narrative.
Example from Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra is a prime example of Shakespeare’s disregard for the unity of place. The play swiftly moves between Rome, Alexandria, various battlefields (Actium, Philippi), and other locations across the Roman Empire. These rapid geographical transitions are essential for depicting the vast political landscape, the scope of the conflict, and the divided loyalties of the protagonists. Without such fluidity of setting, the play’s epic scale and its exploration of the clash between East and West, duty and desire, would be severely diminished. Even within a single play like Macbeth, the scene shifts from battlefields to castles (Fores, Inverness, Dunsinane), reflecting the changing circumstances and the pervasive influence of fate and ambition.
Conclusion
In essence, while Aristotle’s perceived unities provided a framework for classical Greek tragedy, emphasizing conciseness and dramatic focus, Shakespeare’s approach embraced a more expansive and naturalistic portrayal of human experience. The Greeks, with their civic rituals and formalized performances, found strength in adherence to these constraints, fostering a concentrated emotional impact. Shakespeare, on the other hand, leveraged the flexibility of the Elizabethan stage and a nascent understanding of psychological realism to create sprawling narratives, intricate character developments, and a multifaceted engagement with universal themes. For the academician, understanding this historical evolution and the philosophical underpinnings of both approaches enriches our appreciation of dramatic art, revealing how aesthetic principles adapt and transform across different cultural and historical contexts.
Multiple Choice Questions
- Which of the following unities was considered by Aristotle to be the most important? a) Unity of Time b) Unity of Place c) Unity of Action d) Unity of Character
Answer: c) Unity of Action
- Who were the Renaissance critics largely responsible for codifying and rigidifying the classical unities? a) Plato and Socrates b) Seneca and Plautus c) Lodovico Castelvetro and other Italian critics d) Ben Jonson and Christopher Marlowe
Answer: c) Lodovico Castelvetro and other Italian critics
- According to the unity of time, the action of a play should ideally occur within how long? a) A week b) A month c) A single revolution of the sun (approx. 24 hours) d) A year
Answer: c) A single revolution of the sun (approx. 24 hours)
- Which Greek play is often cited as a prime example of adherence to all three classical unities? a) Aeschylus’s Prometheus Bound b) Euripides’ Medea c) Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex d) Aristophanes’ Lysistrata
Answer: c) Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex
- How did Shakespeare typically handle the unity of action in his plays compared to Greek tragedies? a) He always maintained a single, isolated plot. b) He frequently incorporated multiple subplots and parallel narratives. c) He completely abandoned any sense of a central plot. d) He focused primarily on the actions of a single character.
Answer: b) He frequently incorporated multiple subplots and parallel narratives.
- Which Shakespearean play is used as an example of having a significant parallel subplot that mirrors the main plot? a) Romeo and Juliet b) A Midsummer Night’s Dream c) King Lear d) The Tempest
Answer: c) King Lear
- What technique did Shakespeare often employ regarding time, where scenes felt immediate but the overall narrative spanned a longer duration? a) Time travel b) Flashbacks c) Double time (or long and short time) d) Reverse chronology
Answer: c) Double time (or long and short time)
- Which of the following Shakespearean plays is characterized by rapid and frequent shifts in location across vast geographical distances? a) Much Ado About Nothing b) Antony and Cleopatra c) The Comedy of Errors d) Twelfth Night
Answer: b) Antony and Cleopatra
- What enabled Shakespeare’s plays to feature frequent changes of setting more easily than Greek tragedies? a) The use of advanced stage machinery b) The more flexible Elizabethan stage with minimal reliance on elaborate sets c) Audiences in Shakespeare’s time were less concerned with realism. d) His plays were only read, not performed.
Answer: b) The more flexible Elizabethan stage with minimal reliance on elaborate sets
- The disregard for classical unities in Shakespeare’s plays primarily allowed for: a) A more concise and focused dramatic experience. b) A broader scope of action and a more multifaceted dramatic experience. c) A strict adherence to historical accuracy. d) The inclusion of only tragic elements.
Answer: b) A broader scope of action and a more multifaceted dramatic experience.
Literary Latitude 