Literary Latitude

A basic understanding of cultural studies begins with recognizing how identities are formed and influenced by the surrounding world. Identity is constructed within the context of the material and non-material aspects of life. Material objects, or tangible items, are those that can be seen and physically held, while intangible elements cannot be directly perceived or held but are equally integral to our daily lives. Both tangible and intangible elements form a collective cultural formation, which defines who we are. For instance, while the human body is a physical component of identity, the larger context—such as the environment, community, and cultural surroundings—plays a significant role in shaping one’s sense of self.

Human life is characterized by daily interactions with various elements of culture, including moral systems. Moral systems provide both freedoms and limitations, creating structured interactions within society. This framework of rules and liberties is part of the broader cultural system that guides behavior and societal interactions. Different societies and communities develop diverse moral systems, such as Hindu, Christian, Islamic, Buddhist, Jain, or secular moral frameworks. These systems intertwine law and morality, making both essential components of culture. The coexistence of legal and moral principles ensures that individuals live within structured boundaries while upholding societal values.

Religion is another vital component of cultural identity. Religious beliefs and practices help define who individuals are within a given cultural context. A person’s identity can be closely tied to religious affiliation, such as identifying as Hindu, Muslim, Christian, or belonging to any other religious group. These religious identities contribute to shaping an individual’s values, worldview, and behavior, thereby influencing their cultural outlook and thought process.

Additionally, national identity plays a significant role in defining who we are. For example, individuals living in India may identify as Indians, and this national identity is rooted in the country’s historical, cultural, and social contexts. Without an understanding of a nation’s history, the sense of identity remains incomplete. Therefore, when someone describes themselves as Indian, it is essential to reflect on what this identity entails—what values, traditions, and historical experiences contribute to this collective definition.

Cultural identity is shaped by both tangible and intangible elements within a society. For example, in the context of India, the cultural identity encompasses aspects like the heritage of Hinduism, the Mughal era, Banaras (Kashi), the Vedas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, and historical figures such as Nehru, Gandhi, Ashoka, and Harshvardhan. Each of these elements contributes to the cultural fabric and collective identity of individuals. Tangible objects such as traditional clothing—dhoti, kurta, sari, or suits—reflect cultural uniqueness and differentiate Indian communities from others. Intangible aspects, such as the languages spoken (Hindi, Marathi, Odia, Gujarati, Bengali, Bhojpuri, etc.), also play a key role in defining identity, even though they are not physically visible.

Cultural activities further contribute to identity formation. For instance, festivals like Holi, Diwali, Christmas, Eid, and Bakr Eid are celebrated uniquely by different communities and highlight cultural distinctions. These festivals symbolize how identity is constructed based on shared customs and traditions. Cultural differentiation is significant because it preserves the distinct identities of various groups. Ignoring cultural markers can lead to isolation and the loss of one’s unique identity, making culture an essential element of human existence.

Institutions within a culture also silently contribute to defining identity. Marriage, for example, is an institutional system with defined social and cultural practices. Societies often have rules regarding marriage, such as the expectation to marry within a certain age range. Failure to do so may result in societal challenges, as marriage is socially institutionalized and legitimized through specific rituals and legal procedures. Without this institutional framework, relationships may lack social or legal acceptance. Modern systems, such as marriage registration, further institutionalize this process, ensuring societal recognition.

Another key institution within culture is education. In modern times, formal education has gained significant importance in legitimizing knowledge. If an individual acquires knowledge informally without attending schools, colleges, or universities, society may label them as illiterate, regardless of their intellectual capabilities. In contrast, formal degrees from recognized institutions confer legitimacy and acceptance of one’s knowledge within society. This institutional framework emphasizes that cultural systems not only shape identity but also determine what is considered legitimate or acceptable within a community.

The legitimization of knowledge is an essential cultural process, indicating that knowledge is often validated through formal institutions such as schools, colleges, or universities. Without this institutional approval, individuals may be considered uneducated or their knowledge may not be recognized. Similarly, religion is an institution that legitimizes religious practices, distinguishing between religion as a personal practice and religion as a structured system. While individuals may have the freedom to switch religious affiliations—being Hindu today, Muslim tomorrow, and Christian the next day—gaining a recognized religious identity requires adhering to certain institutional practices. For instance, to be formally recognized as a Hindu, one must participate in specific rituals, worship particular deities, and engage in temple worship. Converting to or from another religion often involves formal processes, such as baptism in Christianity or shuddhi in Hinduism, to mark the transition and establish public or legal acknowledgment of the change.

Cultural institutions extend beyond religion and education to include various daily practices influenced by geography and environment. Activities such as music, literature, political affiliations, and social customs play a role in shaping identity. Environmental factors also contribute to cultural distinctions. For example, individuals living in the fertile Gangetic plains may develop cultural practices distinct from those living in the arid deserts of Rajasthan. The environment influences clothing choices, agricultural practices, and even social interactions.

In regions like Rajasthan, where the desert landscape dominates, cultural adaptations are visible in traditional clothing. Brightly colored turbans and garments are common, serving a practical purpose. In the sandy terrain, where visibility is often hindered by sandstorms, the use of vibrant, varied colors helps distinguish people from a distance. Unlike plain or monochromatic clothing, which could easily blend with the environment, colorful attire ensures that individuals are recognizable, even across vast desert expanses. This interplay between environment and culture highlights how geographic conditions shape and reinforce cultural identity.

Tangible and intangible artifacts play a significant role in shaping and maintaining culture. However, the conditions under which cultural practices are adopted can vary. Some cultural conditions are naturally or environmentally enforced, while others are imposed institutionally. In certain cases, cultural practices are optional, allowing individuals the freedom to either adopt or reject them. The development of liberal societies, particularly after independence and economic liberalization, has given people more freedom to make choices, as reflected in the recognition of human rights and fundamental rights under constitutional law.

Previously, many cultural norms were strictly enforced, with limited room for personal choice. For example, heterosexuality was once the only legally and socially accepted form of sexuality in many societies, including India, where non-heteronormative sexualities were criminalized. Although legal attitudes have fluctuated between decriminalization and criminalization, the norm of heterosexuality remains deeply embedded. This norm, referred to as heteronormativity, defines the expectation that heterosexuality is the default or compulsory orientation. Enforced identities, such as those related to sexuality, demonstrate how cultural norms can be restrictive.

Gender identities are another example of how cultural norms shape behavior and expectations. Traditionally, gender roles have been strictly defined—men are expected to perform “male” roles, and women “female” roles. This concept is known as gender performativity, where individuals continuously perform roles that align with societal expectations of their gender. For instance, men are often associated with traits like bravery, rationality, short hair, and specific clothing styles in Indian cultural contexts, while women are expected to perform roles that align with femininity.

However, there are instances where gender roles blur. For example, a woman may adopt traditionally masculine attire, such as a shirt, pants, and coat, and display a strong, assertive presence in professional spaces, such as a classroom. This challenges the conventional expectations of gender performativity, as the woman is performing what society typically considers a “male” role. Although women may sometimes subvert gender norms, it is less common for men to perform traditionally “female” roles due to the influence of heteronormativity and the associated societal restrictions.

Everyday performances of gender are culturally enforced, requiring individuals to behave in ways that align with societal definitions of masculinity or femininity. For example, culturally, men are often expected to be brave, rational, and clean-shaven or bear beards, while their clothing choices reflect traditional male attire. These roles and expectations demonstrate how deeply culture influences identity, dictating how individuals express themselves and are perceived within society.

Cultural norms and practices often dictate how individuals are expected to perform their gender and identity within society. For example, if a man were to challenge societal expectations by wearing a sari, displaying emotional vulnerability, or adopting behaviors typically associated with femininity, he would likely face cultural resistance. This resistance stems from the institutionalized practice of heteronormativity, where heterosexuality and gender exclusivity are the default norms. Men are expected to exclusively perform roles associated with masculinity, while women are expected to perform feminine roles. Deviation from these roles is often met with societal disapproval, even if legal frameworks may be more accepting.

Queer identities challenge these rigid norms, blending various expressions and performances of gender and sexuality. For example, an individual may present a mix of masculine and feminine traits, such as wearing traditional male clothing but adopting mannerisms or accessories typically associated with femininity. Although legally recognized in some societies, such identities often remain culturally marginalized. Nonetheless, the diversity of identities highlights how complex and multifaceted human identity can be, with differences forming the foundation of cultural diversity.

Cultural practices and identities are essential to human life, making it difficult to define culture in a singular, comprehensive way. Culture is a dynamic and all-encompassing construct shaped by various interactions, contexts, and formations. If someone who has spent decades living in India were suddenly placed in a drastically different cultural setting—such as a space colony on another planet—they would encounter a completely different way of life. In this hypothetical environment, cultural adaptations would be necessary due to unique environmental constraints. Basic resources like oxygen, water, and food would be scarce and managed through scientific processes, such as mixing hydrogen and oxygen to create water. Unlike Earth, where resources like water are naturally available, life on this new planet would be structured around survival through technological innovations, reflecting a distinct cultural system.

Cultural categories can be broadly divided into two main types: high culture and popular culture. High culture refers to cultural products and activities often associated with the elite, such as classical music, fine art, and literature. Popular culture, on the other hand, consists of the mainstream practices, entertainment, and media consumed by the general public, including television, movies, and social media trends. Historically, the distinction between these two categories was clearer, but advancements in technology, globalization, and the proliferation of social media have blurred these lines. The interaction between high culture and popular culture has become more complex, with each influencing and borrowing elements from the other, creating a more interconnected and dynamic cultural landscape.

High culture refers to cultural activities and products that require significant skill, deep knowledge, and long-term dedication. These cultural practices are often expensive, rooted in long-standing traditions, and undergo slow, infrequent changes over time. As a result, high culture is typically associated with the elite class or upper sections of society, as they possess the resources, time, and patience needed to engage in and master these forms of culture.

An example of high culture is Bharatanatyam, a classical dance form that requires years of rigorous training—often 10 to 15 years—to master its intricate steps, postures, and connections to mythology, spirituality, and philosophy. Bharatanatyam goes beyond being a mere dance; it incorporates elements of Indian mythology, religious devotion, yoga, and storytelling. Only those who have the financial resources and dedication to invest in this lengthy process can truly participate in and appreciate this art form. High culture is also associated with aesthetic refinement and philosophical meaning, which distinguishes it from more accessible forms of cultural entertainment.

Other examples of high culture include classical music, fine architecture, and ancient temple designs. For instance, the intricate architecture of temples like the Jagannath Temple in Puri or the Sun Temple in Konark demonstrates the high level of craftsmanship and artistic excellence characteristic of high culture. Replicating such architectural marvels in modern homes would be extremely costly and impractical for the average person, further highlighting the exclusivity of high culture. Historically, high culture was embraced by kings, nobility, and wealthy, highly educated individuals who had control over resources and could afford to engage in such cultural pursuits. The exclusivity of high culture lies in its value, which often comes with a non-negotiable price.

In contrast, popular culture, or mass culture, is widely accessible to the general public and typically serves the purpose of entertainment rather than education. Unlike high culture, it does not require extensive training, deep knowledge, or significant financial investment to enjoy or participate in. Popular culture is often driven by consumerism and is available at competitive prices, making it accessible to a broad audience. Examples of popular culture include movies, pop music, television shows, fashion trends, and social media content, all of which are designed to be easily consumed and enjoyed by the masses without the need for specialized knowledge. Popular culture evolves rapidly to meet changing tastes and is often produced with the goal of generating widespread appeal and commercial success.

Popular culture is the culture of the masses, characterized by its accessibility, affordability, and diversity of choices. It is the culture that people engage with on a daily basis, including entertainment like music, films, television, and internet content. In contrast, high culture is associated with elite groups, requiring specialized knowledge, skill, and often significant financial investment to access and appreciate. However, there are certain points where these two cultural categories intersect, particularly due to the influence of technology and social media.

On platforms like social media, elements of high culture, such as classical dance forms like Bharatanatyam or Kathak, are made widely available to the general public. For example, while classical performances may traditionally require expensive tickets and years of training to fully appreciate, snippets of such performances can now be viewed freely on platforms like YouTube, Instagram reels, and other online media. Although the full experience of high culture, such as attending a live Bharatanatyam performance, remains exclusive and costly, the digital age has made certain aspects of it more accessible, creating a convergence between high culture and popular culture. What was once reserved for a select few can now be enjoyed, albeit in a limited form, by the masses.

Another example of this convergence is seen in the branding and marketing of luxury items, such as high-end cars. Brands like Mercedes-Benz, Rolls-Royce, and Land Rover are associated with high culture due to their exclusivity and the significant cost of ownership. However, despite their limited production and elite customer base, these brands have become symbols of aspiration in popular culture, often showcased in movies, advertisements, and social media. For example, Rolls-Royce is an emblem of luxury, yet its cars are rarely sold in high volumes. In India, the company sells fewer than 5,000 cars annually, compared to mass-market brands like Maruti Suzuki, which sells over 1.5 lakh (150,000) cars per month. This demonstrates a significant difference in scale and target market.

The profitability models of these companies also differ greatly. While mass-market brands like Maruti Suzuki rely on high sales volumes and small profit margins per unit, luxury car manufacturers like Rolls-Royce generate profits through high margins on a limited number of sales. The cost of owning a Rolls-Royce is exceptionally high, often in the range of 3-4 crore INR per vehicle, and some models are priced at over 14 crore INR or more. Despite selling far fewer cars, companies like Rolls-Royce can remain profitable because of the significant markup on their vehicles, whereas mass-market brands achieve profitability through economies of scale and volume-based sales.

This contrast between high culture and popular culture—whether in terms of accessibility to classical art forms or luxury products—highlights how each serves different social groups and functions within society. However, the lines between the two are becoming increasingly blurred as technology continues to democratize access to once-exclusive experiences, making elements of high culture more visible and desirable within the realm of popular culture.

High culture and popular culture differ significantly in their accessibility, purpose, and influence, though they occasionally overlap. High culture is associated with exclusivity, requiring specialized knowledge, skill, and resources. It includes art forms, literature, luxury products, and cultural practices that are historically significant and maintained by elites. For example, brands like Rolls-Royce and luxury items such as gold jewelry or expensive watches symbolize high culture because they are unaffordable to the general population and reflect wealth, refinement, and status. High culture often becomes the standard or canon, preserved and passed down through generations, as seen in works by authors like Salman Rushdie and Rabindranath Tagore, which require deeper understanding and literary background.

In contrast, popular culture is accessible to the masses and focuses on entertainment and consumption. Examples include affordable brands like Maruti Suzuki, popular literature like Chetan Bhagat’s novels, and everyday items such as smartphones, shoes, and mass-produced goods. Popular culture requires little to no specialized knowledge and caters to widespread tastes. However, points of convergence between high and popular culture exist. For instance, social media platforms allow people to access elements of high culture—such as classical dance or luxury brands—without fully participating in the traditional contexts of high culture. Despite this accessibility, owning a luxury item, such as Woodland shoes or an iPhone, does not equate to becoming part of the elite; these items are just fragments of high culture within the broader context of popular culture.

Festivities like the Kumbh Mela in Prayagraj (Allahabad) exemplify the blending of high and popular culture. As a mass religious and cultural event, it attracts millions of people from diverse backgrounds, including both ordinary attendees and elite figures like business tycoons and international personalities. The event reflects elements of popular culture through mass participation and traditional rituals, while VIP accommodations, exclusive access, and institutional representation highlight high culture. The convergence creates a complex dynamic where cultural practices serve both communal and elite purposes, making them significant to national and cultural identity.

Folk culture, distinct from both high and popular culture, is rooted in specific communities, regions, or ethnic groups. Unlike high or popular culture, it is often seasonal or confined to particular settings, reflecting local traditions, folklore, and customs. Folk culture encompasses traditional songs, dances, crafts, and celebrations that are passed down within small, localized groups. Its availability is often limited by time and place, making it a unique and integral aspect of regional identity.

These distinctions among high culture, popular culture, and folk culture highlight the diversity of cultural experiences. While high culture maintains its exclusivity through tradition and knowledge, popular culture thrives on accessibility and entertainment. Folk culture, on the other hand, preserves local traditions and community-specific practices. Understanding these categories provides a comprehensive view of how culture shapes identities and societal interactions. With this overview in mind, the lecture will now delve into the specific topics of the course.