The study of literature has undergone a profound shift in recent decades, moving away from the isolated analysis of texts towards a recognition of their deep entanglement with the social, political, and cultural forces that shape them. This shift is embodied in New Historicism, a critical approach that emerged in the 1980s, largely through the work of Stephen Greenblatt 1. New Historicism challenges the traditional view of literature as a timeless expression of universal truths, instead emphasizing its role as a product and producer of its historical moment 3. This approach has had a significant impact on how we understand and interpret literary works, prompting us to consider not only what a text says but also how it interacts with the world around it.
Definition of New Historicism
New Historicism is a method of literary criticism that emphasizes the historicity of a text by relating it to the configurations of power, society, or ideology in a given time 4. It aims to understand intellectual history through literature and literature through its cultural context 1. A key insight of New Historicism is its challenge to the traditional hierarchy between literary and non-literary texts 5. Instead of viewing history as a mere “background” to the literary “foreground,” New Historicists give equal weight to both, recognizing that they are intertwined and mutually illuminating. This approach breaks down the distinction between high and low culture, considering a wide range of texts, from canonical works to everyday documents, as equally important for understanding a historical period.
Furthermore, New Historicism questions the objectivity of history itself, viewing it as a form of narrative that is subject to interpretation and biases 6. It recognizes that history is not a neutral record of events but a constructed narrative that includes and excludes certain voices. This perspective encourages a more critical and nuanced understanding of the past, acknowledging its complexities and contradictions.
Key Principles of New Historicism
| Principle | Description |
|---|---|
| The Interplay of Literature and History | New Historicists emphasize the reciprocal relationship between literature and history, recognizing that they are mutually constitutive. Literature is not simply a reflection of history but also shapes and is shaped by historical forces 3. |
| The Importance of Context | New Historicists analyze literary works within their specific historical contexts, considering the social, political, and economic conditions of the time. They examine how these factors influence the production and reception of literary texts 2. This includes considering the concept of “self-fashioning,” which explains how individuals create their identity in line with societal norms and cultural expectations 7. For example, during the Renaissance, nobles would dress and behave in ways that reflected their social status and the expectations of their time. |
| The Fluidity of History | New Historicists challenge the notion of history as a fixed and objective narrative. They view history as a dynamic and contested field, subject to interpretation and reinterpretation 8. |
| The Role of Power | New Historicists analyze how power operates within literary texts and their historical contexts. They examine how literature reinforces or subverts existing power structures and how it contributes to the circulation of knowledge and ideology 9. |
| The Subjectivity of Interpretation | New Historicists acknowledge that their own interpretations are influenced by their historical and cultural positions. They recognize that meaning is not fixed but is constructed through the interaction between the text and the reader 3. |
Examples of How These Principles are Applied to the Analysis of Literature
- William Shakespeare’s Richard II: Stephen Greenblatt analyzed Shakespeare’s play Richard II in the context of the Essex Rebellion against Queen Elizabeth I. He argued that the play’s depiction of the deposition of a king was not merely a historical reflection but also a potentially subversive act that could be used to challenge the existing political order 2. Greenblatt highlighted how the play was used by the Essex faction to draw parallels between Richard II and Queen Elizabeth, potentially inciting rebellion against her rule. This example demonstrates how New Historicism examines the interplay between literature and political power.
- Charles Dickens’s Oliver Twist: New Historicists might analyze Dickens’s Oliver Twist in the context of the social and economic conditions of Victorian England, examining how the novel reflects the plight of the poor and the injustices of the time 10. For instance, they might explore the connection between the novel’s portrayal of poverty and the Poor Laws of the time, which were often criticized for their harsh treatment of the poor and their contribution to social inequality. This analysis would reveal how Oliver Twist participates in a broader social discourse about poverty and social justice in Victorian England.
- Bram Stoker’s Dracula: New Historicists might analyze Stoker’s Dracula in relation to the anxieties surrounding sexuality and gender roles in Victorian society, exploring how the novel reflects and reinforces these cultural norms 7. They might examine how the figure of Dracula represents fears of female sexuality and the perceived threat to patriarchal order. This analysis would demonstrate how Dracula engages with broader cultural anxieties and contributes to the construction of gender roles in Victorian society.
Historical Context of the Development of New Historicism
New Historicism emerged in the late 20th century as a response to what was perceived as an “ethical failure” in the prevailing approaches to literary study 11. While reacting against the text-centered approaches of New Criticism and deconstruction, which often neglected the historical and cultural contexts of literary works, New Historicism also appropriates some of their techniques and language 11. It sought to re-engage with history and to analyze literature as a product of its time 3, recognizing that literary texts are not isolated creations but are embedded in a network of social, political, and cultural forces.
The development of New Historicism was influenced by several intellectual currents, including:
- The work of Michel Foucault: Foucault’s theories of power, discourse, and knowledge were central to the development of New Historicism. His emphasis on the ways in which power operates through language and institutions provided a framework for analyzing the relationship between literature and history 12. Foucault’s concept of “discourse” as a system of knowledge production and power relations was particularly influential in shaping New Historicist thought.
- Cultural anthropology: New Historicists drew on the work of anthropologists like Clifford Geertz, who emphasized the importance of understanding cultural practices within their specific contexts 13. Geertz’s concept of “thick description,” which involves a detailed and nuanced interpretation of cultural practices, provided a model for New Historicist analysis of literary texts.
- Marxism: While not strictly Marxist, New Historicism shares some affinities with Marxist theory, particularly its focus on the relationship between ideology and power 8. Marxist ideas about class struggle, economic determinism, and the role of ideology in maintaining social order informed some aspects of New Historicist analysis.
Key Figures Associated with New Historicism
Stephen Greenblatt is widely considered the founder of New Historicism 1. Other key figures associated with the movement include:
- Harold Aram Veeser: Veeser edited the influential anthology The New Historicism (1989), which helped to define and popularize the movement 2. Veeser’s anthology brought together essays by various scholars, showcasing the diversity of New Historicist approaches and contributing to its widespread influence.
- Catherine Gallagher: Gallagher co-authored Practicing New Historicism (2000) with Greenblatt, which further developed the theory and methodology of New Historicism 14. This book provided a more nuanced and sophisticated understanding of New Historicism, addressing some of the criticisms levelled against it and offering new directions for research.
- Louis Montrose: Montrose was a prominent scholar of Renaissance literature who contributed to the development of New Historicism through his work on the relationship between literature and cultural poetics 2. Montrose’s work emphasized the role of literature in shaping cultural values and social practices, highlighting its active participation in the construction of historical reality.
Criticisms of New Historicism
Despite its significant contributions, New Historicism has been subject to various criticisms:
- Relativism: Critics argue that New Historicism can lead to cultural relativism by overemphasizing the historical specificity of literary texts and neglecting their universal or timeless qualities 12. This criticism suggests that New Historicism may undermine the possibility of finding enduring meanings or values in literature.
- Overemphasis on Power: Some critics argue that New Historicism places excessive emphasis on power relations, potentially neglecting other important aspects of literary analysis, such as aesthetics or authorial intention 12. This critique suggests that New Historicism may reduce literature to a mere reflection of power struggles, overlooking its artistic and creative dimensions.
- Determinism: Critics suggest that New Historicism can be deterministic in assuming that literary texts are entirely shaped by their historical contexts, leaving little room for individual agency or creativity 12. This criticism challenges the New Historicist view of literature as a product of its time, arguing that it may underestimate the role of individual authors in shaping their works.
- Lack of a Theory of History: Some critics, such as Frederick Jameson, argue that New Historicism lacks a coherent theory of history, leading to a somewhat anecdotal and fragmented approach to historical analysis 15. This critique suggests that New Historicism may lack a rigorous methodology for understanding historical processes and their relationship to literature.
- Reduction of Literature to a Footnote of History: Harold Bloom criticizes New Historicism for reducing literature to a mere reflection of historical events, neglecting the unique aesthetic qualities of literary works 16. This criticism suggests that New Historicism may prioritize historical context over textual analysis, potentially diminishing the value of literary study.
Impact of New Historicism on Literary Studies
Despite these criticisms, New Historicism has had a significant impact on literary studies. It has:
- Re-engaged with history: New Historicism has revitalized the study of history in literary studies, encouraging scholars to analyze literary works in relation to their social, political, and cultural contexts 17. This has led to a richer and more nuanced understanding of literary texts, recognizing their embeddedness in historical processes.
- Expanded the canon: New Historicism has broadened the literary canon by including non-canonical texts, such as diaries, letters, and political pamphlets, alongside traditional literary works 18. This has expanded the scope of literary study, recognizing the value of a wider range of texts for understanding a historical period.
- Challenged traditional interpretations: New Historicism has challenged traditional interpretations of literary works by offering new perspectives on their historical and cultural significance 18. This has led to a re-evaluation of many canonical works, uncovering hidden meanings and challenging established critical perspectives.
- Influenced other critical approaches: New Historicism has influenced other critical approaches, such as cultural studies, postcolonial studies, and feminist criticism, by providing a framework for analyzing the relationship between literature, history, and power 18. This has contributed to a more interdisciplinary approach to literary studies, recognizing the interconnectedness of various fields of knowledge.
Difference Between New Historicism and Other Historical Approaches to Literature
New Historicism differs from earlier historical approaches to literature, such as traditional historicism, in several ways:
- Reciprocity: New Historicism emphasizes the reciprocal relationship between literature and history, recognizing that they are mutually constitutive. Traditional historicism, on the other hand, tends to view history as a background to literature, with literature primarily reflecting historical events 6.
- Textuality of History: New Historicism views history as a text that needs to be interpreted, acknowledging its subjectivity and fluidity. Traditional historicism often treats history as a more objective and stable entity 6.
- Focus on Power: New Historicism places a greater emphasis on the role of power in shaping literary texts and their historical contexts. Traditional historicism may focus more on historical events and cultural traditions 19.
- Parallel Reading: New Historicism often involves the parallel reading of literary and non-literary texts, giving equal weight to both. Traditional historicism may prioritize literary texts over non-literary sources 5.
New Historicism vs Cultural Materialism
New Historicism shares some similarities with Cultural Materialism, another critical approach that emerged in the late 20th century. Both schools of thought are interested in recovering lost histories and exploring mechanisms of repression and subjugation 20. However, they differ in their focus and methodology.
New Historicists tend to concentrate on those at the top of the social hierarchy (e.g., the church, the monarchy, the upper classes), while Cultural Materialists tend to concentrate on those at the bottom (e.g., the lower classes, women, and other marginalized peoples) 20. This difference in focus reflects their respective interests in understanding how power operates in different social contexts.
Furthermore, New Historicists tend to draw on the disciplines of political science and anthropology, given their interest in governments, institutions, and culture, while Cultural Materialists tend to rely on economics and sociology, given their interest in class, economics, and commodification 20. This difference in methodology reflects their respective approaches to understanding the relationship between culture and society.
Conclusion
New Historicism has made a significant contribution to literary studies by challenging traditional approaches and offering new ways of understanding the relationship between literature and history. It has re-engaged with history, expanded the literary canon, and influenced other critical approaches. While subject to criticisms, New Historicism remains a valuable tool for analyzing literary texts and their historical and cultural contexts. It encourages scholars and readers to consider the complex interplay of forces that shape the production and reception of literature.
Furthermore, New Historicism reflects a broader shift towards interdisciplinary studies and the growing recognition of the interconnectedness of various fields of knowledge. By breaking down the traditional boundaries between literature, history, and other disciplines, New Historicism has contributed to a more holistic and nuanced understanding of human culture. It has also influenced contemporary debates about history, culture, and identity, prompting us to question the narratives we tell about ourselves and the world around us.
Works cited
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Literary Latitude 